经济生产力有两个方面：一是技术层面，二是意识形态层面。技术层面涉及提高产量和改善产品质量的科学手段与方法，包括管理科学、自动化、信息技术、决策支持系统、企业资源计划、工业工程以及类似的学科。这些学科具有普遍性，不带有任何宗教或意识形态色彩。科学方法可以在伊斯兰、资本主义或社会主义等任何意识形态的范围内使用，以提高产品的数量和质量。因此，关于技术以及提高生产力的科学手段的讨论，并不属于经济制度讨论的范畴。在伊斯兰教最初兴起的时期，穆斯林并不认为采用伊斯兰前希腊或埃及文明所发展出的科学技术有何不妥。

There are two sides for the economic productivity: one is technical and the other is ideological. The technical side has to do with the scientific means and ways of increasing production and improving the quality of products. Included in this part are the management sciences, automation, information technology, decision support systems, enterprise resource planning, industrial engineering, and similar sciences. These sciences are universal and do not carry any religious or ideological connotation. Scientific methods can be used within the scope of any ideology, whether Islam or capitalism or socialism, to increase the quantity and quality of products. Therefore, the discussion of technology and the scientific means of increasing productivity do not fall within the scope of the economic system discussion. During the first rise of Islam, the Muslims found no harm in using the scientific techniques advanced by the Greek or Egyptian civilizations before Islam.

生产力的另一面确实是制度性的,并且与各民族的意识形态世界观密切相关。伊斯兰政治经济学提出了若干原则,综合起来往往能营造出有利于提高生产力的环境。这里所说的生产力,是指在一定时间内生产出用于直接或间接满足人们需要的商品和服务。

The other side of productivity is indeed a systemic one and is closely related to the ideological world view of peoples. The Islamic political economy provided several principles, which in the sum tend to create an environment for increased productivity. By productivity, here, I mean the production of goods and services which are used directly or indirectly to satisfy the needs of people within a given time frame.

有趣的是，一些生产力问题同时具有科学和意识形态的双重性质。以创新和发明为例。蒸汽机的发明是一项科学突破，但促成这一发明的政治和经济环境并非纯粹的科学。在评论创新与意识形态框架之间的关系时，卡莉·菲奥莉娜120将伊斯兰教描述为一种善于利用创新的文明。无数历史学家和作家都指出，伊斯兰文明作为一个整体，极其有利于创新、发明和生产力的提升。

It is interesting to note that some of the productivity issues carry both scientific as well as ideological character at the same time. Take for example innovation and invention. The invention of steam engine is a scientific breakthrough. But the political and economic environment which led to the creation of the engine is not pure scientific. Commenting on the relation between innovation and ideological framework, Carly Fiorina120 described Islam as a civilization which harnesses innovation. It has been noted by scores of historians and writers that the Islamic civilization as a whole was so conducive for innovation, invention, and productivity.

在谈及经济层面的生产力之前，我要先指出：伊斯兰的精神层面对生产力的数量与质量都有巨大影响。我们不应忘记，伊斯兰社会整体建立在信仰的基础之上，即相信安拉是唯一的神，并且必须遵行祂的命令，而这些命令是通过祂的使者穆罕默德ﷺ启示下来的。因此，安拉在《古兰经》或《圣训》中所启示的一切，对于留意这些启示的穆斯林都有直接而强大的影响。

Before getting into the economic part of the productivity, I should mention that the spiritual part of Islam has a great impact on productivity both in quantity and quality. Let’s not forget that the Islamic society as a whole is established upon the creed of the belief in Allah as the only god and the necessity to adhere to his commands which are revealed through his messenger Mohammad (PBUH). Therefore, whatever Allah reveals either in the Quran or the Sunnah has a direct and strong impact on the Muslims who take note of this revelation.

在《古兰经》中，安拉阐明了创造人类的首要目的，是利用这片大地上丰富的资源。在《黄牛章》（第2章，第30节）中，安拉在提到创造第一个人（阿丹）时说：

In the Quran, Allah defines the main objective behind creating man, in the first place, is to exploit the abundant resources in this earth. In Surah Al-Baqara (chapter 2, verse 30), Allah says in reference to the creation of the first human (Adam):

[2:30] 当你的主对天使说:“我确将在大地上设立一位哈里发(即在大地上开发利用资源的人)。”《古兰经》中多处提到,安拉在大地和天空中创造了极其丰富的资源,祂希望人们伸手去开发利用这些资源,为自己谋取利益。例如《哲西叶》章(第45章)第12节经文:

[2:30] And when your Lord said to the angels: “Verily, I am going to place a viceroy on earth (one who exploits resources on earth)” This is further emphasized in references made in the Quran to the fact that Allah had created in the earth and in the heavens enormous amount of resources and he wants the people to reach out and exploit these resources for their own benefit. An example is the following verse from Surah Al-Jathia (chapter 45, verse 12):

[45:12] 真主，是祂使大海为你们所用，使船只依祂的命令在海上航行，好让你们寻求祂的恩惠，并借此感恩。

[45:12] Allah it is He Who has subjected to you the sea, that ships may sail through it by His Command, and that you may seek of His Bounty, and that you may be thankful.

穆斯林对这类经文的理解既是一种事实陈述，也是一种命令。因此，当伊斯兰国家一旦稳定下来，穆斯林便开始进行各种创新与生产活动，也就不足为奇了。

The Muslims understand these types of verses both as a statement of fact and as a command to do. It is no surprise, then, that as soon as the Islamic state stabilized, the Muslims engaged in all types of innovations and production.

强调生产的重要性，安拉的使者ﷺ命令他的同伴们，直到生命的最后一刻，都要继续从事他们在田间的工作。在一段圣训中，他说，即便一个人看到生命的迹象在自己眼前消逝，也应当继续种树。121 在另一段圣训中，先知ﷺ指出，任何种树的人，每当有人吃到树上的果实，他都会从安拉那里获得一份回报；即便是动物吃了树上的果实，回报也会被赐予。伊斯兰初期的穆斯林认真对待先知ﷺ的教诲，并将生产推向了极致。

Stressing the importance of production, the messenger of Allah (PBUH) commanded his companions to continue doing what they are doing in the field to the last minute of their life. In one narration, he said that one should continue planting a tree even if he sees the signs of life ending in front of his eyes.121 In another narration, the Prophet stated that any one who plants a tree will receive a reward from Allah every time someone eats the fruits of the tree; even if animals eat of it, the reward will be granted. Muslims in the early days of Islam took the statements of the Prophet seriously and pushed the production to the furthest limits.

在质量方面,先知曾号召人们把工作做到完美,他说:"安拉喜爱那把自己的工作做到完美的人。"122 先知还说过,除非一个人把所受托的工作做到完美,否则他在末日不得进入天堂。循此原则,伊斯兰禁止销售已知存在缺陷的任何商品。如果在售后发现缺陷,则撤销买卖,商品退回,卖方须承担因出售有缺陷产品而造成的损失。因此,生产质量在伊斯兰教中是一项义务:穆斯林达到质量要求便会获得回报,违反则会受到问责。《古兰经》更进一步强调质量问题,经中说,任何人所做的工作都将受到安拉、祂的使者以及信士群体的监察。123

On the quality side, the Prophet had called for perfection of the work done by people when he said, “Allah loves the one that perfects his job.122” The Prophet also had said that no one will enter heavens on the Day of Judgment unless he had perfected the work he was charged to do. Along this line, Islam prohibits the sale of any merchandise with a known defect. If a defect is detected after the sale, then the sale is revoked and the merchandise is returned, and the seller will have to pay the losses incurred due to the sale of a defected product. As such, the quality of production is an obligation in Islam for which Muslims are rewarded when they achieve it and defaulted when they violate it. The Quran further stresses the issue of quality when it says that the work performed by anyone will be monitored by Allah, his messenger, and the group of believers.123

伊斯兰教的理性基础，即对安拉及其使者的信仰，为高质量的生产力奠定了舞台。生产力是伊斯兰教及其文明最初兴起时的直接成果之一。当伊斯兰教衰落时，生产力也随之衰退（无论在数量上还是质量上）。

The intellectual foundation of Islam, i.e., the belief in Allah and his Messenger, sets the stage for high-quality productivity. Productivity was one of the immediate fruits of the first rise of Islam and its civilization. When Islam declined, so did productivity (both quantitatively and qualitatively).

除了为生产力提供的理论框架之外,伊斯兰教还提供了一套经济原则,有助于促进社会的生产力。构成政治经济中促进生产力的各个要素,将在接下来的各节中讨论。

Besides the intellectual framework provided for productivity, Islam also provides a set of economic principles which facilitate productivity in the society. The components of the political economy which contribute to productivity are discussed in the next sections.

高利贷，在伊斯兰术语中称为"里巴"（Riba），在资本主义术语中称为利息，在伊斯兰教中被明确禁止。伊斯兰教首次对高利贷发起严厉批判时指出，高利贷使财富的增长循环脱离了生产。换言之，资金仅通过货币交换而增长。《古兰经》解释说，高利贷（里巴）是一种过程，通过这一过程，一个人的货币财富以另一个人的货币财富为代价而增长。124

Usury, otherwise known as Riba in Islamic terms, or interest in capitalistic terms, is categorically prohibited in Islam. When Islam made the first critical assault on usury, it observed that usury allows the cycle of wealth growth to exclude production. In other words, the money grows as a result of monetary exchange only. The Quran explained that usury (Riba) is a process by which the monetary wealth of one human entity grows at the expense of the monetary wealth of another human entity.124

古代文明中的高利贷，例如巴比伦和亚述，产生了所谓的债务奴役。放债人可以把钱借给那些以自身作为抵押担保的人，若不能偿还，就将其卖为奴隶。古希腊城邦雅典和斯巴达也存在同样的做法，穷人受富人压迫，被诱使负债，然后沦为奴隶或被流放。125 126 这种做法在罗马帝国以及伊斯兰教出现之前的阿拉伯部落社会中，以不同的形式延续下来。

Usury in ancient civilizations, e.g., Babylonia and Assyria, produced what was known as debt slavery. Lenders could lend their money to people who would bind their persons as collateral security and sell them into slavery, in the event of nonpayment.125 The same practice existed in old Greek cities of Athens and Sparta where the peasants were oppressed by the rich and encouraged to get into debt and then were reduced to slavery and exile.126 This practice continued in different forms within the Roman Empire and tribal societies of Arabia before Islam.

也许，关于高利贷对社会的邪恶影响，最杰出、最具戏剧性的描绘，就是威廉·莎士比亚的著名戏剧《威尼斯商人》。127 莎士比亚塑造了犹太银行家夏洛克的形象：他以较高的利率放债，而商人安东尼奥则不取利息放贷。放高利贷的夏洛克，竟为了讨不回或迟还的债款，愿意夺取安东尼奥的性命。

Perhaps the most outstanding and dramatic visualization of the evil impact of usury on societies is the famous play by William Shakespeare The Merchant of Venice.127 Shakespeare dramatized the personality of Shylock, the Jewish banker, who lends money with larger interest rates versus Antonio, the merchant, who lends money without interest. The usurious Shylock was willing to take the life of Antonio for unpaid or delayed debt.

最近,理查德·沃尔夫(Richard Wolf)在马萨诸塞大学的一次演讲中,揭示了高利贷对美国工人阶级以及生产率的影响。自二十世纪七十年代以来,工人的平均工资持续停滞,而消费习惯却不断攀升,这使得美国大多数人陷入了借贷狂潮。以高利率借贷(信用卡利息平均超过20%),加上本已微薄的工资和房地产资产的耗尽,使工人精疲力竭,实际上沦为一种"劳动奴隶"。劳动奴役使主人能够占有劳动力,而无需关心劳动者本身。129

Most recently, Richard Wolf in a speech at the University of Massachusetts exposed the impact of usury on the working class in the United States and on productivity.128 The average wages of the workers continued to flatten since the 1970s, while the consuming habits continued to rise, which pushed the majority of the Americans into a borrowing spree. Borrowing money with high interest rates (credit card interests average over 20%) against the already-low wages and the real estate possessions exhausted the workers and turned them into what amounts to a “labor slave.” Labor slavery allows the master to own the labor without having to care about the laborer.129

囤积是指聚敛和收藏财富,使其不再用于生产商品和提供服务的过程。伊斯兰教明确禁止囤积财富,禁止囤积黄金和白银,因为二者是伊斯兰国家的主要货币。禁止囤积黄金和白银是伊斯兰政治经济学的一项重要原则,旨在维持生产力。缴纳天课并不会使囤积变成允许的行为。天课是旨在消除贫困的一项原则,而禁止囤积则旨在维持生产力。这两项原则不应相互矛盾,而是相辅相成,从而使经济更加稳定。

Hoarding is defined as the process of collecting and putting away wealth such that it may no longer be used in the production of goods and services. Islam categorically prohibited the hoarding of wealth when it prohibited the hoarding of gold and silver, being the main currency of the Islamic state.133 The prohibition of hoarding of gold and silver is a major principle in the political economy of Islam aimed at sustaining productivity. Paying the Zakah charity does not change the status of hoarding to a permissible act. Zakah is one principle aimed at eliminating poverty, while the prohibition of hoarding is aimed at sustaining productivity. These two principles cannot be at odd with each other. Rather, they complement one another and allow for a more stable economy.

在伊斯兰初期，黄金和白银是用于金融交易的货币。直到1924年伊斯兰国家覆灭，黄金和白银一直是伊斯兰国家的货币。因此，伊斯兰禁止囤积黄金和白银，实际上是禁止囤积钱财或财富。囤积的概念不适用于女性日常佩戴的首饰。为某个特定项目储蓄资金，例如建造房屋、履行朝觐或筹备婚礼，同样不被视为囤积。囤积的实质，是让钱财在无限期内脱离生产流通的循环。

The gold and silver during the early days of Islam were the currency used for financial transactions. Gold and silver continued to be the currency of the Islamic state until the state collapsed in 1924. So when Islam prohibited the hoarding of gold and silver, it really prohibited the hoarding of money, or wealth. The concept of hoarding does not apply for regular jewelry used by women. Putting money aside for a particular project, such as building a house, performing hajj, or preparation for wedding is not considered hoarding as well. Hoarding, in essence, is a means of keeping money outside the production cycle for indefinite time.

当一个人积累了大量财富,并将这些钱存放在保险箱或任何不用于投资项目的账户中时,无论是用于购买商品、房地产、经营业务还是其他具有经济价值的项目,这种囤积的资金对经济而言都是一项巨大的损失。只有将生产所产生的财富重新投入生产循环,生产才能持续下去。所产生的财富既可以用于消费货物、商品和服务,也可以用于生产更多的货物、商品和服务。无论哪种情况,生产循环都会在力度和速度上不断增强。一旦部分所产生的财富流出并被囤积,生产循环就会变得疲软,如果财富的流失不加以制止,甚至可能完全停滞;见图32。

When a person accumulates a large amount of wealth and keeps that money in a safe deposit box or in any account where the money is not used in any project, whether for buying merchandise, a real estate, a business, or any other project of financial merit, then that stockpiled money is a big loss for the economy. Production can only be sustained if the wealth generated as a result of production is reused in the cycle of production. The produced wealth can be used either for consuming goods, commodities and services, or for producing more goods, commodities, and services. In either case, the production cycle grows in strength and rate. The moment part of the produced wealth leaks out to be hoarded, the production cycle will suffer weakness and may come to a complete halt if wealth leak does not stop; see figure 32.

在正常的生产循环中，财富被用于消费产品和服务，而这些消费又为生产商品和服务的生产者带来利润。因此，生产经济在所生产的商品和服务方面以及在生产和消费所必需的财富方面都得以增长。当囤积发生时，部分财富便会脱离这一循环，从而减少了可用于消费和生产的财富数量。从根本上说，伊斯兰教禁止这种现象，即通过囤积钱财的方式，使部分财富被移出生产循环。

In the normal production cycle, the wealth is used to consume products and services, which in turn generate profit for the producer who produces the goods and services. As a result, the economy of production grows in terms of produced goods and services and in terms of wealth, which is necessary for the production and consumption. When hoarding occurs, part of the wealth leaks out of the cycle, which reduces the amount of wealth available for consumption and production. Essentially, Islam prohibited this phenomenon, where part of the wealth is removed from the production cycle through the process of money hoarding.

在最近一次资本主义世界金融危机的成因之中，确实包括财富囤积。美国和欧洲的投资公司与银行决定扣留大量投资资金，并大幅减少向公众发放的贷款。政府向银行提供刺激计划和救助资金的一个主要动机，就是鼓励或迫使银行恢复向公众放贷。换言之，银行扣留了大量资金，使其脱离了生产循环。当然，这种行为是有原因的；但无论原因如何，当国家的一部分财富被囤积在生产循环之外时，生产便会放缓，经济陷入衰退，金融体系也会遭受极大的损害。

One of the causes of the most recent financial crisis in the world of capitalism was in fact the hoarding of wealth. Investing firms and banks in the United States and Europe decided to withhold a large portion of their money investment and drastically reduced the amount of loans issued to the public. A major motive for the stimulus packages and bailout money given by the government to banks was to encourage or force the banks to resume the process of giving loans to the public. In other words, the banks withheld a large portion of the money and kept it away from the production cycle. Of course, there are reasons for this behavior; but whatever the reasons are, when part of the wealth of a nation is stacked away from the production cycle, the production slows down, the economy downturns, and the financial system suffers a great deal.

伊斯兰政治经济制度禁止一切形式的囤积，无论出于何种理由。即使穆斯林将部分财富用于支持伊斯兰事业，并足额缴纳天课，囤积仍然是被禁止的。著名的古兰经注释学家古尔泰卜说，“囤积禁令”的经文同时禁止囤积并责成人们为真主之道而支出；换言之，这节经文包含两条不同的规定。[134]第一条规定使囤积钱财成为被禁止的行为；第二条规定使为支持伊斯兰事业而支出成为一项义务。 在伊斯兰社会中，囤积将受到两种力量的制约。其一是穆斯林的虔诚，以及为追求真主的喜悦与回赐、躲避真主的震怒与惩罚而对真主的完全顺从。这是促使许多穆斯林戒除囤积、让财富留在市场流通的强大动力。其二，除了内在的伊斯兰动力之外，伊斯兰国家还将以法律的力量执行“禁止囤积”的规定，因为确保伊斯兰律法得到全面实施是伊斯兰国家的责任。同样地，正如国家将禁止涉及高利贷的货币交易，国家也将禁止囤积钱财的行为。

The Islamic political economy prevents all forms of hoarding, no matter what the reason was. Hoarding continues to be prohibited, even when a Muslim spends part of his wealth in support of the cause of Islam, and pays the Zakah dues in full. Al-Qurtubi, the famous Quran commentator, says that the “hoarding verse” at once prohibits hoarding and obligates the spending in the cause of Allah; in other words, the verse contains two separate rules.134 One rule makes the hoarding of money a prohibited act; and the second rule makes the spending in support of the cause of Islam an obligation. Within the Islamic society, hoarding will be prevented by two forces. The piety of a Muslim and the full obedience to Allah in pursuit of his pleasure and reward and in evasion of his wrath and punishment is a strong motive for many Muslims to abstain from hoarding and to keep their wealth in the market. Besides the internal Islamic drive, the Islamic state will enforce the “no hoarding” rule by the power of law, since it is the responsibility of the Islamic state to guarantee the full implementation of the Islamic code. In the same manner, as the state will prevent monetary transactions involving usury, it will prevent acts of money hoarding.

如前所述,囤积是一种让资金和财富脱离生产循环的做法;囤积者不把钱投入使用,而是将其堆积起来,从而剥夺了经济获得投资机会的可能。禁止囤积自然要求将积累的财富进行投资,尤其是在财富数额极为庞大的情况下。既然伊斯兰禁止通过高利贷使财富增长,那么使积累的财富增值的唯一途径,就是让它进入生产循环。伊斯兰所引入的机制之一,是一种名为"穆达拉巴"(Mudharabah)的合伙形式。穆达拉巴是伊斯兰教中的一种企业形式,由一方出资、另一方出力。出资方可以是一人或多人,出力方同样可以是一人或多人。出资方通常是拥有超过自身所需财富、却没有足够时间或技能去投资的人;出力方通常是拥有时间和技能,却没有足够资金去投资和生产的人。穆达拉巴合伙使双方共同进入市场,使财富得以投资而非囤积,也使劳动、技能和知识得到运用。与单纯雇佣劳动和技能不同,穆达拉巴合伙能最大限度地发挥出力方的积极性,因为他本身就成为企业的所有者之一。

As discussed above, hoarding is a process which keeps money and wealth outside the production cycle; instead of investing the money, the hoarder will stack it up and deprives the economy form investment opportunity. The prohibition of hoarding automatically calls for investment of the accumulated wealth, especially when the amount of wealth is excessively large. Since wealth is not allowed to grow through usury, then the only means of growing the accumulated wealth is to keep it in the production cycle. One of the mechanisms introduced by Islam is a form of partnership called “Mudharabah.” Mudharabah is a form of company in Islam where one partner provides wealth and the second partner provides labor. The wealth partner(s) can be one or more individuals. The labor partner can also be one or more individuals. The wealth provider is typically someone who has more wealth than he can spend and does not have sufficient time or skills to invest his money. The labor partner is typically someone who has the time and skills but does not have enough wealth to invest and produce. The Mudharabah partnership brings both parties to the market such that the wealth is invested rather than hoarded, and the labor, skills, and knowledge are utilized. Unlike the employment of labor and skills, the Mudharabah partnership exploits the maximum energy of the labor partner, since he becomes one of the owners of the company.

Mudharabah 合伙制度消除了囤积财富的一个常见原因。拥有财富的人可能因为没有时间、技能或投资知识而不愿将资金投入市场；通过 Mudharabah，他将被迫寻找一位缺乏资金但有能力的合作伙伴。实质上，Mudharabah 从两个方面促进了生产：资金与劳动力。

Mudharabah partnership eliminates one of the common reasons for hoarding. The wealthy person, who may refrain from investing his money in the market due to lack of time, skills, or knowledge of investment, will be forced to seek a partner who lacks the wealth. In essence, Mudharabah boosts production from both sides: the money and the labor.

在穆扎拉巴(Mudharabah)合伙中,合伙双方——劳动方与出资方——对公司的成败负有同等责任。如果公司失败,出资的一方将损失其投入的资金,而劳动方则损失其付出的劳动。根据伊斯兰教的合伙规则,劳动合伙人无论在公司中扮演何种角色,都不领取任何薪水。他只有权根据其在公司中持有的股份比例获得红利。 需要注意的是,劳动方与资金方之间的股份不必平均分配;通常由双方协议确定各自的股份。无论股份如何分配,双方对公司的责任都是平等分担的。 伊斯兰教中穆扎拉巴的规则使合伙双方都极为关注公司的成功。原则上,这应当增强出资方的信心,并减轻其对投资安全的担忧。由于劳动合伙人不因其付出而获得任何报酬,他应当更加关心公司的盈利能力,因为这是他获得回报的唯一途径。

In the Mudharabah partnership, both partners (the laborer and the investor) are equally responsible for the success or the failure of the company. If the company fails, then the one who supplied the money loses his wealth investment and the laborer loses his labor investment. Under the rules of partnership in Islam, the labor partner does not receive any salary, no matter what role he plays in the company. He is only entitled to receive dividends based on the amount of share he holds in the company. Note that the shares in the company do not have to be equally divided between the labor part and the money part; usually, an agreement between both sides will determine the shares of each. No matter what the share distribution is, the responsibility for the company is equally shared by both parties. The rules of Mudharabah in Islam are such that each partner in the Mudharabah is vigorously interested in the success of the company. This should, in principle, increase the confidence of the money partner and reduce his concern for his investment. Since the labor partner does not receive any compensation for his effort, he should be more interested in the profitability of the company, because this is the only way he can get rewarded for his effort.