政治经济体制中最突出的特征，或许是其对社会中财产所有权的界定。私有制被认为是资本主义的显著特征。生产资料公有制则是社会主义的主要特征。伊斯兰政治经济学承认三种所有权形式，即私有制、公有制和国家所有制。这三种所有权形式各自的范围都有明确的界定。

Perhaps the most outstanding feature of political economies is that which defines property ownership in the society. Private ownership was recognized as the distinctive feature of capitalism. Public ownership of the means of production is the main characteristic of socialism. The Islamic political economy recognizes three forms of ownership, namely, the private ownership, the public ownership, and the state ownership. The scope of each of these forms of ownership is exclusively defined.

在阐述这些所有权形式之前，需要指出的是，社会主义和资本主义都未能完全坚持其各自对所有权的定义。苏联的社会主义统治者被迫放松对公有制的严格看法，为有限的私人所有权打开了大门，尤其是在农业领域。同样，中国的社会主义者也在制造业中允许有限的私人所有权。在资本主义世界里，出于各种原因对私有财产实行国有化的情况十分普遍。美国和一些欧洲国家政府接管银行、保险公司和汽车工业，已成为应对金融危机和经济问题的一种可以接受的做法。在一个由社会主义和资本主义思想主导的世界里，财产所有权的范围可以用图31中的图表来直观地展示。以私有制为基础的国家经济最终会增加公有制成分；而以公有制为主的国家，最终又会增加私有制成分。

Before proceeding to explain these forms of ownership, it should be noted that neither socialism nor capitalism was able to exclusively stand by their definitions of ownership. The socialist rulers in the Soviet Union were forced to relax their strict view of public ownership and open the door for limited private ownership, especially in the farming industry. By the same token, the Chinese socialists have also allowed a limited private ownership in the manufacturing industry. Within the world of capitalism, nationalization of private property for different reasons is more than common. The government takeover of banks, insurance companies, and auto industries in the United States and some European countries has become an acceptable response to financial crisis and economic problems. The scope of property ownership in a world dominated by the ideas of socialism and capitalism can be visualized as shown in the diagram in figure 31. State economies based on private ownership end up adding public ownership to their systems; those with public property ownerships end up adding private ownerships.

实践表明，最优且稳定的政治经济体制，是那些同时采用多种所有制形式的体制。所有制的恰当组合，以及何者构成私有、何者构成公有的范围界定，不能通过反复试错、坐等观望的方式获得。这种组合应当加以更为正式的界定，使由此形成的政治经济体制能够保持稳定，并实现消除贫困与饥饿这一既定目标。

Practically this shows that optimal and stable political economies are the ones that deploy more than one form of ownership. The proper mix of ownerships and the scope of what constitute a private and what makes a public ownership cannot be obtained through a trial-and-error, wait-and-see kind of process. This mix should be more formally defined so that the resulting political economy can be a stable one and can lead to the desired objectives of resolving poverty and hunger.

决定所有制恰当组合的，是不同意识形态对社会如何构成、如何看待的方式。如果将社会视为一群个体的集合，那么自然会强调个人的私有所有制，并部分或全部排斥其他形式的所有制。如果将社会视为一个单一的物质整体，个人只是这个整体的组成部分，那么自然会强调社会中的集体所有制。然而，如果将社会视为由相互区别、彼此独立的组成部分所构成的结构，那么财产所有制便会随着其组成部分的多样性而呈现出多样化。

What defines the proper mix of ownerships is the way the society is formed and viewed by different ideologies. If the society is perceived as being as a group of individuals, then it is natural to emphasize the private ownerships of individuals and to partially or completely exclude other ownerships. If the society is perceived to be as a single material unit with individuals being only as parts of the whole unit, then it is natural to emphasize the collective ownership in the society. However, if the society is perceived as a structure composed of distinct and independent components, then property ownerships will diverse according to the diversity of its components.

伊斯兰对社会的看法是：社会由三个截然不同的组成部分构成。每一部分都有其特定的需要，且这些需要彼此不同。第一个组成部分是个体的人，他拥有特定的本能和生理需求，这些需求必须持续不断地得到满足。社会中的每个人都有自己对食物、住所、健康、休息、配偶、崇拜和繁衍的需要。为了满足这些需要，个人必须拥有满足每一项需要所必需的手段和工具。当这些手段和工具由一个人或整个社群共同拥有时，那些不拥有它们的人的需要就无法得到保障。例如，若约翰、阿里和亚当each各有一条面包，而萨姆一条也没有，那么约翰、阿里和亚当吃饱了，萨姆却可能挨饿。同理，若四条面包由约翰、阿里、亚当和萨姆共同拥有，那么他们中同样可能有人挨饿。为了保障个人基本需要的满足，个人必须能够拥有满足这些需要所必需的物品和工具。

The Islamic view of society is such that the society has three distinct components. Each has its specific needs which are different form the needs of the other ones. The first of these components is the individual human being who possesses specific instincts and biological needs which need to be satisfied on a continuous basis. Each individual in the society has his own needs for food, shelter, health, rest, mating, worshiping, and breeding. In order to satisfy these needs, the individual must own the means and tools necessary to satisfy each of these needs. When the means and tools are owned by one person, or by the community at large, there will be no guarantee that the needs of another person who does not own them will be satisfied. For example, if John, Ali, and Adam each has a loaf of bread, but Sam does not have any, then Sam may go hungry while John, Ali, and Adam are full. By the same token, if four loaves of bread are collectively owned by John, Ali, Adam, and Sam, then it is possible that one of them can go hungry as well. To guarantee the satisfaction of the individual basic needs, the individual must be able to own the commodities and tools which are necessary to fulfill these needs.

唯一真正否认个人财产所有权的哲学，是马克思主义哲学。它把个人视为一个名为社会的更大物质实体中的物质组成部分。它主张个人不具有任何本能，因此个人的财产所有权只是一种幻觉。人类日常生活的现实证明这一理论是错误的。伊斯兰教拒绝这一理论，并坚持认为：人类为拥有满足其基本需要与本能的物品和工具而奋斗，是人类被造时就内在固有的。92

The only philosophy that verily denied the property ownership of individuals is the Marxist philosophy which viewed the individuals as materialistic parts of a larger materialistic entity called the society. It maintained that individuals posses no instincts of any kind, and therefore property ownership of individuals is an illusion. The reality of human daily living proves this theory incorrect. Islam rejects this theory and insists that the human strife to own the commodities and tools to satisfy his basic needs and instincts are intrinsic and inherent to the creation of the humans.92

在资本主义主导的世界里，生产资料、商品和货物的私有制是所有权的默认常态。然而，在社会主义的范畴内，私有制被视为违背常态。我在二十世纪七十年代中期生活在苏联时，很难让同事们相信私有制是人类的正常行为。要归属于伊斯兰教这样的宗教，并非易事，因为伊斯兰教保护私有财产，甚至为侵犯私有财产的罪行设定了最严厉的惩罚。我在资本主义世界的经历则截然相反：私有财产是常态，其他一切都是例外。

In a world dominated by the capitalist ideology, the private ownership of commodities, goods, and means of production is the default norm of ownership. However, within the realm of socialism, private ownership is considered to be against the norm. When I lived in the Soviet Union in the mid-1970s, I had a hard time convincing my colleagues that private ownership was a normal human behavior. It was not easy to belong to a religion, like Islam, which protects private ownership to the extent that it invokes the harshest punishment against the crime against the private property ownership. My experience in the capitalist world was totally the opposite; private property was the norm, and anything else was the exception.

与社会主义不同，伊斯兰承认人内心深处的本性，即渴望获取财富以及生产财富的手段。但它与资本主义也有所不同，因为它限制了私有制得以运作的范围与界限。伊斯兰不允许个人拥有或生产被伊斯兰列为禁品的东西。例如，依照伊斯兰教法，不允许生产或拥有毒品、酒类饮料或赌场。伊斯兰还禁止个人占有被视为公共财产的东西，例如油田、森林或河流。

Unlike socialism, Islam recognizes the innermost characteristic of a human which calls for the acquisition of wealth and the means to produce wealth. But it also differs with capitalism in the sense that it restricts the scope and the range in which private ownership is allowed to operate. Islam does not allow an individual to own or produce things which are categorized as prohibited goods in Islam. For example, it is not allowed under Islam to produce or own drugs, alcoholic drinks, or a casino. Islam also restricts individuals from acquiring property which is considered to be a public property such as oil fields, forests, or rivers.

本质上,伊斯兰承认人类的内在天性,并认可私有财产是人类求生本能的自然体现。与此同时,伊斯兰也认为,某些财产应当归全体公众所有,以防止因个人获取财富能力的差异而造成的失衡。在社会中,有人比他人掌握更多技能,有人获取财富的动力更强,甚至有人因身体残疾或缺陷而无法获得足以维持生计的财富,这些情况并不少见。战争与内乱、地震和海啸等自然灾害、奴隶制与歧视,以及政治和经济上的不公,同样可能导致一部分人在财产占有方面落后。

Essentially, Islam does recognize the intrinsic nature of humans and admits that private ownership is a natural manifestation of the human instinct for survival. In the meantime, it recognizes that certain properties should remain in the hands of the public at large in order to guard against the imbalance caused by the variations in capabilities of individuals to acquire wealth. It is not uncommon for some people in a society to acquire more skills than others, or some people to have more motivation for wealth acquisition, or even for some people to have certain disabilities or handicaps which prevent them from acquiring enough wealth to provide for their needs. Various conditions such as wars and internal upheaval, natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis, slavery and discrimination, and political and economic injustice can also contribute to the case where some people lag behind in terms of ownerships.

人类的劳动是获取财富的首要和最主要的途径。通过体力或脑力劳动,男人或女人都能创造出原始的财富,这些财富成为其私有财产,受法律保护,并由国家强制执行。据传先知穆罕默德ﷺ曾说:“谁开垦了一块死地,它就归他所有。”这句圣训适用于从未以任何形式被使用过、也从未被任何人拥有的荒地。通过开垦一块土地并将其改造为可用于耕种或开发的田地,人便成为该土地的唯一所有者。

Human labor is the first and foremost means of wealth acquisition. Using physical or mental labor, a man or woman can create an original wealth which becomes his or her private property, protected by law and enforced by the state. It is reported that Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) had said, “Whoever cultivated a dead land, it becomes his.”100 This statement of the Prophet applies to bare land that has never been used in any form before and had not been owned by any people. By cultivating a piece of land and converting it into a useful piece for farming or development, one becomes the sole owner of the land.

伊斯兰教也允许个人拥有从地下开采出的物品，例如石头和大理石；从海中获取的物品，例如珍贵的珍珠；或从空气中获取的物品，例如氧气和氮气。例外的是存在于大型矿藏中的矿物，因为这些矿物已知属于公众所有。同理，通过狩猎飞禽、走兽、鱼类及其他海产品，也可以获得财富。《古兰经》在第五章《筵席》第96节中说："准许你们猎取海中的动物，并以它为食物。"在另一处，《古兰经》则提到陆地上的狩猎，将其视为获得所有权的一种途径。102

Islam also allowed the individual to own what he can extract from beneath the ground such as stones and marbles, from the sea such as precious pearl,101 or from the air such as oxygen and nitrogen. An exception would be the minerals which exist in large mines since these minerals are known to be the property of the public. By the same token, wealth acquisition can be attained by hunting of birds, animals, fish, and other sea products. The Quran says in Surah Al-Mai’dah (chapter 5, verse 96), “Lawful to you is (the pursuit of) sea hunting and its use for food.” In another location, the Quran speaks of hunting on the land as a means of possession.102

人们可以运用自己的脑力和体力劳动，为贸易伙伴之间促成合法的交易；需要注意的是，原始财富属于交易者，而中介则是通过自己的劳动，获得这些财富的一部分所有权。此外，人们还可以参与一种特殊的合伙形式，称为“穆达拉巴”（Mudharaba）。在这种合伙中，一方提供资金，另一方仅提供劳动。付出劳动的一方通过自己的劳动为自己创造财富。这种合伙形式也可以扩展到农业领域。

People can use their mental and physical labor to broker legal deals between trading partners; note that the traders have the original wealth, whereas the broker uses his labor to own part of that wealth. Also people can engage in a specific partnership called “Mudharaba.” In this form of partnership, one party provides the money and the other party provides only labor. The one who participates with his labor creates wealth for himself. This type of partnership can be extended for farming as well.

在财富获取的诸多方式中，最广泛使用的形式是雇佣：雇主利用雇员的体力或脑力劳动。在此情形下，雇主借助雇员的付出来增加财富。而雇员则以自己的劳动去创造并拥有财富。伊斯兰总体上允许雇佣，但所要从事的工作若属被禁止的，则不在此列。《古兰经》和圣训中有多处关于劳动与雇佣的论述。据传，先知穆罕默德ﷺ曾说："安拉（SWT）说：在审判日，我将与三类人为敌。"其中一类是："某人雇用了一名工人，工人完成了所要求的全部工作，但雇主没有向他支付全部工资。" 伊斯兰在劳动与雇佣方面与资本主义和社会主义有若干不同之处。伊斯兰将雇佣限定在其目标收益合法的领域之内。例如，伊斯兰不允许任何人以自己的劳动，用葡萄制品来生产酒。据传先知穆罕默德ﷺ曾说，酿酒的罪过也延及制造和售卖酒的人。在另一段圣训中，先知ﷺ说，书写高利贷合同的人，与参与高利贷交易的人同样有罪。同样，伊斯兰也不允许所有形式的卖淫，因为所获得的利益是被禁止的。在赌场工作也是不允许的。个人在伊斯兰所禁止的领域从事雇佣而获得的财富，被视为非法财富。这是伊斯兰与只在考虑财富获取时关注盈利性的唯物主义制度之间的一大区别。

获取财富的第二种途径是继承。在伊斯兰教中，继承是一个明确规定的过程：已故者的财产依照特定的份额分配给子女、父母、配偶、兄弟和姐妹。伊斯兰的继承规则允许财产在财产所有人去世后被分割并分配。在经济增长的过程中，财富可能在少数人生前就逐渐集中到他们手中。继承规则便用来打破这种趋势，使财富能够在多个人之间流转。伊斯兰教中的继承有三种不同的情形：

The second means of wealth acquisition is inheritance. Inheritance in Islam is a well-defined process, whereby the wealth of a deceased person is distributed among the children, parents, spouses, brothers, and sisters according to a certain formula. Inheritance rules in Islam allow the wealth to be broken and distributed after the death of the wealth owner. It is possible in the process of economic growth for wealth to accumulate in the hands of a few individuals during their life. The rules of inheritance are then used to break this tendency and cause the wealth to be recycled among several individuals. There are three distinct cases of inheritance in Islam:

第一种情况是继承人依据继承法则获得全部遗产，即全部财产在他们之间进行分配。

1. The first case is when the inheritors take the whole inheritance according to the laws of inheritance, whereby all the wealth is distributed amongst them.

第二种情况是继承人只能继承部分遗产。例如，死者只留下配偶（丈夫或妻子）。在这种情况下，只继承财产的四分之一或二分之一，其余遗产归国家所有。

The second case is when the inheritors are entitled for part of the 2. inheritance only. For example, the deceased leaves behind only the spouse (husband or wife). In these cases only a quarter or half of the wealth is inherited, while the rest of the inheritance goes to the state.

第三种情况是死者没有留下任何继承人；在这种情况下，全部遗产归国家所有。

The third case is when the deceased leaves no inheritor behind; in 3. this case the whole property goes to the state.

财富由此得以分散,财产转移到继承人手中,财产的流转在人们之间形成一个经济循环,不再停留于某一人手中而使财富不断积聚。继承是合法的财产所有方式,因此任何继承某物的人都合法地拥有该物。由此可见,继承是伊斯兰教法所允许的财产所有途径之一。

The wealth is thus broken up and the property is transferred to the inheritors, where the exchange of the property resumes in an economic cycle amongst the people. The property is not kept in the hands of a particular person where the wealth accumulates. Inheritance is a legal means of property ownership, so anybody who inherits a thing owns it legally. Thus the inheritance is one of the means of property ownership, which the Islamic Shari’ah has permitted

尽管已采取各种措施使社会摆脱贫困，仍可预见，因种种原因，总会有一些人陷入贫困。为了满足这些人的需要，伊斯兰教劝导国家为那些自己无法找到工作的人提供合适的就业机会。先知ﷺ说："伊玛目（国家元首）是牧人，他要对其臣民负责。"108 就业使个人能够通过劳动获取财富。如果由于市场状况而无法找到工作，或者此人因年老、患病或残疾而丧失劳动能力，那么他的赡养和供养便成为其近亲的义务与责任，例如儿子、父亲和丈夫，前提是这些人有能力提供所需的供养。这一内容载于伊斯兰教法学著作中的"赡养"（Nafaqah）章节之下。

Despite all measures taken to relieve the society from poverty, it is expected that some individuals will end up in a state of poverty for all types of reasons. In order to attend for the needs of these individuals, Islam recommended the state to provide a suitable opportunity for the employment of those who could not find employment on their own. The Prophet (PBUH) said, “The Imam (head of state) is a Shepard, and he is responsible for his subjects.”108 Employment enables individuals to use their labor to acquire wealth. In case it is not possible to find a job due to market conditions, or the person becomes unable to work due to age, sickness, or disability, then his support and sustenance becomes the duty and responsibility of his next of kin such as sons, father, and husband assuming that these parties are able to provide the required support. This is outlined in the books of Islamic jurisprudence under the section of “Nafaqah” (alimony).

如果近亲无法承担所需的赡养费,则责任将上升至国家。国家将动用公共财产收入以及天课(Zakah)中的可用资金。天课是从富人的财产中取出的一定数量的财富,并转交给穷人。在《安-麦尔阿利吉》章(第70章,第24-25节)和《忏悔》章(第9章,第103节)中,真主说:

If the immediate relatives are unable to maintain the required alimony, then responsibility is escalated up to the state. The state uses the funds available from the revenues of the public properties as well as from the Zakah. The Zakah is a specific amount of wealth taken out of the property of the rich and relayed to the poor. In Surah Al-Ma’arij (chapter 70, verse 24-25), and Al-Tauba (chapter 9, verse 103), Allah says,

[70:24]还有那些财产中有公认权利的人，为乞讨者和贫困者。

[70:24]And those in whose wealth there is a known right; for the beggar and the destitute.

[9:103] 从他们的财产中取出天课（施舍），借此使他们清净，并使他们纯洁。换言之，天课从富人的原有财产中划出一定数额归于贫民。伊斯兰教使这部分财产成为贫穷个人的权利，而不是富人施予的恩惠。在《忏悔章》（第9章第60节）中，《古兰经》列出了八类有权从天课基金中获得财产的人。

[9:103] Take Sadaqah (alms) from their wealth in order to purify them and sanctify them with it In other words, the Zakah allocates certain amount of wealth for the poor from the original wealth of the rich. Islam makes this portion of wealth a right for the poor individual rather than a favor made by the wealthy ones. In Surah Al-Tauba (chapter 9, verse 60), the Quran lists eight categories of people who are entitled to acquire wealth from the Zakah fund:

伊斯兰国家允许向社会中的民众提供补助，以激励生产，并使人们能够将其事业发展至盈利阶段。国家使用公共财产和公有财产来发放激励性补助。据记载，第二任哈里发欧麦尔·本·哈塔ب（Omar Bin Al-Khattab）曾为伊拉克的农民提供激励资金，帮助他们耕种田地。这种帮助是以国家补助的形式提供的，而非贷款。

The Islamic state is allowed to provide grants for people in the society for the purpose of stimulating productivity and enabling people to grow their business to a profitable stage. The state uses both state as well as public property to issue stimulus grants. It is narrated that the second caliph Omar Bin Al-Khattab provided stimulus money for the farmers in Iraq to help them cultivate their farms. The help was in a form of state grant, rather than loans.

先知穆罕默德ﷺ据报道在迁往麦地那后，曾为艾布·伯克尔和欧麦尔划拨土地。他也给了祖拜尔一块土地。穆罕默德ﷺ去世后，哈里发们继续将部分公有土地分给各个个人，以开发未被利用的荒地。需要指出的是，国家不使用税款或天课基金来进行这些赏赐。国家唯一被允许使用的资金，是来自国家或公共财产的资金。

Prophet Mohammad is reported to have given land for Abu Bakr and Omar after the migration to Medina. He also gave a piece of land to Al-Zubair. After the death of Mohammad (PBUH), the caliphs continued to give part of the public lands to various individuals in an attempt to utilize unused bare land. It should be noted that the state does not use tax money or the funds of the Zakah for the grants. The only fund the state is allowed to use is the one that comes from the state or public property.

除了这些获取财产的方式之外，还有其他私有财产的途径，例如赠予和已故者的遗嘱。先知穆罕默德ﷺ允许赠予礼物，并且他接受穆斯林和非穆斯林的礼物。此外，伊斯兰允许穆斯林以遗嘱的形式指定其部分财产，但遗嘱的受益人不应是依法有权继承的人；遗嘱的数额也不应超过全部财产的三分之一。111

Besides these means of property acquisition, there are other means of private ownership such as gifts and wills of deceased. Prophet Mohammad permitted gift giving110 and he accepted gifts from both Muslims and non-Muslims. Also, Islam allowed a Muslim to designate part of his wealth in form of a will such that the recipients of a will should not be among those who are entitled for inheritance by law; also the amount of will should not exceed one-third of the total wealth.111

获取合法财产的另一种途径，是人因他人对其造成的伤害而获得的赔偿。若有人被他人杀害，其继承人有权获得赔偿。杀人的赔偿金等同于一百头骆驼的价值。112 对身体任何部位所造成损害的赔偿，在伊斯兰法学著作中有详细规定。

Another means of legal wealth acquisition is the compensation a person receives due to injury incurred against him by another person. If a person is killed by someone then his inheritors are entitled for compensation. The compensation for killing a person is equal to the value of one hundred camels.112 The compensation in return for damage incurred for any part of the body is detailed in the books of Islamic jurisprudence.

伊斯兰教的婚姻契约包含一定数额的财物，须支付给女方。这笔财物是女方的所有物，并非作为某种利益的交换，因为婚姻对男女双方都有共同的益处；然而，只有男方有义务将部分财产转交给女方。这笔财物因婚姻契约而成为女方的所有物，而不是像当代法律和制度中那样因离婚而产生。

Marriage contract in Islam includes certain amount of wealth to be paid to the woman. This wealth is the property of the woman and is not in exchange of a certain benefit, because both men and women have a mutual benefit in marriage; however, only the man is obligated to transfer part of his wealth to the woman. This wealth becomes the property of the woman as a result of the contract of marriage and not as a result of divorce as is the case in contemporary laws and systems.

伊斯兰承认"公众"作为一个实体存在，并且它有自己的需求。这些需求并不等同于个人需求之和，因此，满足公共需求并不能通过满足每个个体的需求来实现。公共的安全、领土的完整、大气和环境的洁净与纯净、其成员之间的团结、海洋、河流和水库的保护，以及其在其他民族面前的形象，所有这些需求都属于整个公众，而不属于特定的个人。为了使公众在社会中保持为一个整体，伊斯兰规定了某些类型的财产，并宣布它们为公共财产。

Islam recognized the existence of public as an entity which has its own needs. These needs are not the sum of the needs of individuals, and therefore the satisfaction of the public needs cannot be achieved by satisfying the needs of each individual. The security of the public, the integrity of its territory, the cleanness and purity of its atmosphere and environment, the solidarity among its units, the preservation of the seas, river, and water reservoirs, and its image in front of other nations are all needs which pertain to the public as a whole and not to specific individuals. In order to preserve the public as one unit in the society, Islam defined certain types of property and declared them as a public property.

公共财产的范畴包括水资源、森林保护区和能源资源。113 古代部落社会过去会根据水源和青草地的可得性来迁移和改变居住地，以便放牧牲畜。每当水泉干涸，或落入另一个部落的控制之下时，该部落就不得不迁移，寻找水源充足的地方。森林干枯、牲畜食物减少时，情况也是如此。伊斯兰认识到，水资源和牧场对整个群体的生存至关重要，因此宣布这些资源应归所有人共有，而不应归任何个人所有。如果这些资源落入一人或少数人手中，公众的完整与团结就可能遭到破坏。能源也同样适用。早期的穆斯林学者在先知的话语中解释“火”一词时，将其理解为木材等火的来源（在古代社会中）。今天，“火”一般泛指能源资源。

The category of public property includes water resources, forest preserves, and energy resources.113 Old tribal societies used to move and change their location based on the availability of water and green meadows for their cattle. Whenever water springs dry out or fall under the dominance of another tribe, the tribe would be forced to move and search for a location where water is plenty. The same happens when the forests dry out and leave less food for the cattle of the tribe. Realizing that water resources and meadows are essential for the survival of the whole group, Islam announced that these resources should be owned by all and not by any single individual. If these resources fall in the hands of one or few, then the integrity and unity of the public may be compromised. The same applies to energy sources. Earlier Muslims scholars interpreted the word “fire” in the statement of the Prophet to mean the source of fire like woods (in the older societies). Today “fire” refers more generally to energy resources.

根据上述分析，伊斯兰教承认，河流、湖泊、海洋、海湾以及地下蓄水层等一切水资源都属于公众所有。任何个人或企业都不得私自占有这些财产。因使用这些资源而产生的收入，将归入国库中的公共财产基金。国家作为公共事务的管理者，将负责以抽水和输送的成本为全体民众提供饮用水。同样，国家将以发电和输送电力的成本，供应由水资源所发的电力。国家不得以营利为目的出售水或电，也不允许个人或公司出售由公共资源产生的水或电。然而，国家将允许个人直接受益于水资源，例如抽取用水、为自身使用而发电，或利用水路航行，但前提是这不会削弱其他人使用和利用水资源的能力。

Following this analysis, it is recognized in Islam that all water resources such as rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, gulfs, and underground water basins are the property of the public. No single individual or enterprise is allowed to privately own any of these properties. The revenues generated due to the use of these resources will be returned to the public property fund in the state treasury. The state in its capacity as a caretaker of the affairs of the public will be responsible for delivering drinking water for all the people at the cost of pumping and delivering. Similarly, the state will deliver electricity generated from water resources at the cost of generating and delivering electricity. The state will not sell water or electricity for profit; it will not allow individuals or companies to sell water or electricity generated from public resources. However, the state will enable individuals to directly benefit from water resources through pumping water, generating electric power for their own use, or navigating the water pathways given that this will not diminish the ability of others to use and utilize water resources.

伊斯兰教规定了某些类型的财产由国家直接拥有。国家财产与公共财产的主要区别体现在财产收益的使用方式上。公共财产由国家管理，但并不归国家所有。只有当国家自身的收入不足以满足其需要时，国家才可以动用公共财产的收益来支付国家的各项开支。而国家财产则赋予国家充分的权力，可以按其认为适当的方式支配收益，用以处理国家事务和民众事务。

Islam designated certain types of property to be owned directly by the state. The main difference between state and public property shows in the way the property revenues are used. The public property is administered by the state but not owned by the state. The state may use revenues of the public properties to spend on state’s functions only when the state own revenue falls short of meeting its needs. The state property, on the other hand, gives the state full authority to spend as it sees fit to conduct its affairs and the affairs of the citizens.

在伊斯兰国家的整个历史中，国家最大的收入来源是来自土地所有权的收益，这种土地被称为哈拉只（Kharaj），即通过战争并入伊斯兰国家的土地。“Kharaj”一词字面意为“产出”。“Kharaj”一词取代了“Fai’i”一词，后者用于指未经战斗而并入的土地。阿布·欧拜德在其著作《财产》（Al-Amwal）中引述祖赫里的话说，先知穆罕默德ﷺ在巴林被征服之后，即便当地人已经皈依伊斯兰教，仍视巴林的土地为哈拉只土地。 116 哈拉只土地被定义为并入伊斯兰国家领土的土地，其所有权归国家所有。国家授予使用者耕种或开发该土地的权利，以换取预先确定的费用。无论使用者是否从土地中获益，该费用都须由其缴纳。该费用并非用于交换土地的产出，而是用于交换使用土地的权利。如果哈拉只土地的使用者是穆斯林，他仍须缴纳其产品的天课部分。如果哈拉只土地的使用者不是穆斯林，他只需缴纳哈拉只税。

Throughout the history of the Islamic state, the largest source of income for the state has been the revenue generated from the property ownership of land called Kharaj (the lands annexed to the Islamic state through war). Kharaj literally means output. The term kharaj replaced the term fai’i, which was used for the land annexed without a fight. Abu Obaid narrated in his book Al-Amwal on the authority of Az-Zuhri that Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) considered the lands of Bahrain after its conquest a land of Kharaj even after the people in Bahrain had converted to Islam.116 Kharaj land is defined as a land added to the territory of the Islamic state and whose ownership belongs to the state. The state grants the right to use the land for farming or development in exchange for a predefined fee. The fee is due to be paid by the user of the land whether he was able to benefit from the land or not. The fee is not in exchange for the product of the land; it is in exchange for the right to use it. If the user of the land is a Muslim, he still has to pay the Zakah portion of the products. If the user of the Kharaj land is not a Muslim, he only has to pay the Kharaj fee.

在哈伦·拉希德哈里发统治时期，由于国家向非洲、中亚和东亚扩张，并深入欧洲腹地，伊斯兰国家的疆域极为辽阔。117 哈里发要求其首席法官艾布·优素福118 撰写一部书，详述与哈拉吉（Kharaj）土地相关的财富规则，并阐明哈拉吉钱财的各种用途。继艾布·优素福之后，又有若干关于哈拉吉的著作问世。119 由艾布·达乌德编纂的著名圣训集《艾布·达乌德圣训集》（Sunan Abu Dawoud）中，有一节题为“哈拉吉之书”。哈伦·拉希德面对哈里发国广阔的疆域，曾对掠过巴格达上空的一朵云说：“你想在哪里降雨都可以，你的哈拉吉最终还是会回到我这里。” 第二任哈里发欧麦尔·本·哈塔卜最早确立了哈拉吉的法规。艾布·优素福在其《哈拉吉书》中记述了如下事件。伊历16年，在卡迪西亚战役之后，哈里发欧麦尔的穆斯林军队占领了伊拉克的一大片土地。杰出的穆斯林圣门弟子及军事将领比拉勒·哈巴什（Bilal Al-Habasihi）、阿卜杜·拉赫曼·本·奥夫（Abderrahman Bin Awf）和祖拜尔·本·阿瓦姆（Zubair Bin Al-Awwam）将部分占领的土地分给了参战的士兵。他们将这片被占领的土地视为战利品，并打算依照伊斯兰关于战利品的分配方法，将其分给战士。然而，哈里发欧麦尔另有主张。他希望这片土地仍归国家所有，并将其转为哈拉吉土地。欧麦尔在麦地那与其顾问们商议之后宣布：